Chapter 6: Invasion by the Danes

In the late 700's, Vikings, seafaring people from Scandinavia, raided several European countries for plunder. The Vikings from Denmark went mostly to England and Wales, and those from Norway went mainly to Scotland and Ireland.

Vikings first raided the Wessex coast in 789. They raided the Hebrides in 794 and Ireland in the next year. They attacked the seats of Christian learning at Iona, Jarrow and Lindisfarne. Summer after summer throughout the ninth century they attacked and pillaged Mercia, sailing and rowing up the Severn and Trent rivers in their longboats. They plundered the rich inland monasteries, melted down church plate, and received 'tribute' -a form of protection money, returning home with their ill-gotten booty of gold and gems. They plundered and burnt villages, depopulated the countryside, took, slaves, and left survivors to starve. Worcester itself was sacked during the raids.

Danish Vikings first settled permanently in England in 851 when a great force remained in England, bent on conquest. Then permanent settlers poured in. The Danes were farmers and traders as well as warriors. By 870, all of eastern England north of the Thames passed under the rule of the Danish jarls, or earls, and came to be known as the Danelaw, the part under Danish law. Only Wessex remained as an English kingdom. Alfred the Great, the king of Wessex, resisted most of the attacks. Alfred was an effective ruler who made his territory a united country.

A Viking Camp

Alfred 'the Great' (849-899) was king of the West Saxons in England. He saved his country, Wessex, from Danish conquest, laid the basis for the unification of England under the West Saxon monarchy, led a revival of learning and literature, and built the first English fleet. During his reign, the shire (county) became a unit of local government, first in his home kingdom of Wessex, and later throughout England. Alfred also established the system of common law, which today is the basis of law in the United Kingdom and many other countries developed in the shire courts. He was such an outstanding leader in both war and peace that he was called the Great.

Alfred was born in Wantage, which is now part of Oxfordshire. As a boy, he was curious and eager to learn. There is a story that his mother offered a prize to the first of her five sons who learned to read. Alfred, the youngest, won the prize, a book of Anglo-Saxon poems. Before he was 7, he had travelled to Rome twice, and was confirmed by Pope Leo IV. These travels showed him the contrast between the civilised parts of Europe and his more backward England.

One of Alfred the Great's client kings, Burgred, granted Alhun (or Alwhine), bishop of Worcester various favours in return for two gold armlets weighing 45 'mancuses'. The grant, in 855, included exempting three 'manentes' in Beonetlege (Bentley) from pasturing rights by the king's swine in an area called Fern Pasture. (et illam terram trium manentium in beonet lege . in occidentale plaga sæbrine etiam liberabo a pascua porcorum re[g]is quod nominamus fearnleswe . propter huius libertatis traditione ille praenominatus episcopus . mihi perdonabat duas bradiolas aureas fabrefactos quas pensarent . xlv . mancusas).

Alfred became king of Wessex in 871, after the death of his fourth brother. By that time the West Saxons had been at war with the Danes for many years. The Danes, or Vikings, had penetrated to all parts of the island. Three of the Saxon kingdoms, Northumbria, Mercia, and East Anglia, had one after another fallen to the Danish invaders. After several losing battles, Alfred made peace with the invaders, but the Danes renewed their attacks.

In 873 the Danes installed Ceolwulf as a thane, or client king, in Mercia, on the understanding that he would be prepared to host the Danes at their demand. Thus four years later a Viking contingent under Guthrum invaded Wessex with his army, but retreated to Exeter, where he was besieged by Alfred's forces. Following an exchange of hostages Guthrum agreed to leave Wessex and so marched to Gloucester in Mercia.

Just after Christmas 878, Guthrum left Gloucester to march on Chippenham where Alfred was over wintering, having stood down his army for the season. Alfred was defeated and was forced to go into hiding. Alfred finally defeated the Danes at the Battle of Edington later the same year. Guthrum agreed to be baptised a Christian. The Danes also agreed to make the Thames River and the old Roman road called Watling Street the boundary between Alfred's kingdom and the Danish lands to the north. The treaty, however, did not assure permanent peace. The Danes assaulted London and the coast towns repeatedly. In about 896 they finally admitted defeat and ceased their struggle for a foothold in southern England.

The eastern, Danish occupied, third of England, became known as the Danelaw. When the Danes founded a town, which was usually a coastal or river port, they fortified it and opened a market. Danish Vikings founded the 'Five Boroughs', the towns of Derby, Leicester, Lincoln, Nottingham, and Stamford. They also established trade between England and countries beyond the North Sea. York was a leading Viking town and trading centre.

All the English people, both in and out of Wessex, who were not subject to the Danes recognised Alfred as their king and paid him homage. He built forts at strategic points and stationed a fleet of ships along the coast to protect his kingdom and guard against invasion. He also issued a great code of laws to improve government.

Education declined because the Danes had looted monasteries and churches, the only centres of learning. Few, even among the clergy, could read or write. Alfred brought teachers and learned men to Wessex from Wales, northern England, and Europe. He himself helped translate books from Latin into Anglo-Saxon. He also kept a record of current events. Called the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, it was continued after his death until 1154. It is the best source for Anglo-Saxon history.

Alfred died in 899. His eldest son, Edward the Elder, who reigned until 924, succeeded him in Wessex. Alfred had laid the foundation for a united English monarchy, and Edward carried on this work. Edward was an able warrior and diplomat. His main achievement was the conquest of all the Danish settlements south of the Humber, thus re-uniting Mercia. This new and much larger kingdom was called England, a word that came from Anglo-Saxon words meaning land of the Angles. Tribes in Mercia and Welsh princes also submitted to him. His sister Aethelflaeda who was known as The Lady of the Mercians assisted Edward in this task.

His eldest son, Athelstan, who reigned from 924 to 939, succeeded Edward. Athelstan had been raised in Mercia by his aunt Aethelflaed, Alfred's eldest daughter, and husband, earldoman Aethelred. Athelstan was probably educated in the school attached to monastery in Worcester. As a result he received much support from both the Mercians and the people of Wessex. He extended his overlordship to include the Danish kingdoms of northern England and Celtic kingdoms in Scotland, Wales, and Cornwall. He also played an important role in European affairs.

The burghs, or counties, of Mercia were formalised in the period 917 to 937, under Edward and Athelstan. Each county consisted of 1200 hides or a multiple of this number. The reason for this organisation becomes clear when one considers that the Danes were a constant threat, and that each hide could potentially supply one armed man for defence of the kingdom. It was calculated that it took four armed men to defend a pole (5.5 yards) of burgh (i.e. city) wall. The Burghal Hidage listed the allocations of rural hides to each of the defended burghs in England outside of the Danelaw. Worcestershire is listed as consisting of 1200 hides or 12 hundreds.

It was the duty of each estate owner to ensure that his vassals fulfilled their obligation to the burgh. Supply of armed men by the estate owners could be commuted to supply of labour or materials for the building or maintenance of burgh defences or bridges, the latter of which were constructed as much to prevent longships coming up the rivers as to provide crossing places. In addition to formalising the supply of burgh defenders the county system also assisted in the administration of tax gathering.

His two brothers, Edmund and Edred succeeded Athelstan in turn. Edmund conquered the Celtic kingdom of Strathclyde and took an active part in European affairs. Edred died childless in 955, and Edmund's sons succeeded him. Edwig, the eldest son, reigned from 955 to 959 but died before he reached adulthood.

Edwig's brother Edgar reigned from 959 to 975. He was one of the country's greatest monarchs and became known as the Peaceful. Before becoming sole king of England, he had already been king of the Mercians and Northumbrians for two years. Edgar was a great lawgiver. He founded religious institutions and effectively reformed England's coinage. His coronation at Bath in 973 was a splendid affair at which even Welsh princes paid him homage. Edgar founded many monasteries and was guided by a group of clerics that included Saint Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury.

Following the Danish invasions the church rebuilt it's ruined properties and continued to function as best it could. In the light of these upheavals Bishop Oswald (961-992) decided to reform the financing of the church by leasing more of it's lands. The leases, or grants, were usually for three lives; that is for the lifetime of the recipient, his heir and his heir's heir. Two thirds of the church-lands that made up Oswaldslow Hundred were soon granted to interested parties, who paid an annual tithe to the church. Oswaldslow Hundred a 'triple hundred' was named in a charter of 964 by the authority of King Edgar. It was created by the merging of Cuthburgelow, Winburgetreow and Wulfereslaw Hundreds. Witleage (Little Witley) was mentioned in the charter. At around this time Edgar established one of his mints at Worcester for the striking of his coinage.

One of Bishop Oswald's first grants was of Beonetlaege (Bentley) in 962. With the consent of the king, Edgar, he let two 'mansae' to his thegn and minister Eadmaer for three lives. The grant also included four saltpans at Upwich (Droitwich) and enough woodland at Bradanlaege (Bradley) to fuel them. Ten saltpans or brine boiling pits were constructed at Upwich during the Anglo-Saxon period. They were heated by charcoal. The grants described and defined the boundaries of the manors in terms of natural and man-made landscape features. Bentley's included references to Saeferne (the Severn), Baele (Babbling) Brook today known as Grimley Brook, Heafuc hrycge (Hawks Ridge/Ockeridge) and 'Dic in Doferic' (a boundary dike running to Shrawley Brook). Ball Mill on the Holt-Grimley parish boundary preserves a derivation of the name of Baele.

Bentley manor became known as Holte (Holt) by the time of Domesday, the original name is preserved in the form of Bentley Farm. Holte means a woodland in a cleared area. Possibly when Bentley manor was granted in two parts the eastern portion was separately identified by the name Holte, which later came to represent the whole manor or parish. The presence of the 'ley' suffix in place names is indicative of clearings within a wooded or forested area. 'Ley' occurs in Witley, Bentley and Rowley within the parishes of Holt and Little Witley. No doubt as the area was cleared between the eighth and eleventh centuries the area of open ground became more extensive than the remaining woodland. The remaining blocks of woodland then became individually 'identifiable', hence the appearance of the name Holte.

Eadmaer received a further grant in 969 when he took on an additional four 'mansi', or hides, at Witleah (Little Witley). The boundaries included all of Witley and the remaining portion of Bentley, probably in the area of Ockeridge Wood. This association of the two manors was repeated on subsequent grants. Little Witley's prefix was unnecessary as Great Witley did not come into existence until much later (post Domesday survey). The charter of 969 describes Witley as forested with open-fields, the latter presumably in the stream valleys. Later documents indicate that Wulfran/Wulfrun as the second 'life' on this grant.

In 977 Oswald granted a priest, Wulfgar, a one-hide estate at Witlea (Little Witley). The grant was for the usual three lives. Perhaps Wulfran gave up the Witley part of his inherited estate when he succeeded Eadmaer. This grant is more detailed than earlier ones as it distinguishes between feldlong (fields/open ground) and wudulang (woodland).

King Edgar's successor, Edward, reigned for less than three years before he was murdered in 978. Edward's murder angered the country. He became known as Edward the Martyr and was made a saint.

Ethelred II succeeded his brother Edward. Ethelred was a weak king who was always mistrustful and lacking in self-confidence. In history, he earned the nickname Redeless, which means lacking in counsel or unadvised, not unready or unprepared as it is often translated. During Ethelred's reign, Danish raiders again attacked England. In 991 Ethelred levied the first in a series of land taxes on his people to pay the Danes to go away or keep the peace. This tribute of money was called Danegeld, meaning Dane money. The money raised in this way continued to be paid to the Danes until 1018, when it began to be used to maintain a standing army and to improve the navy. Although this policy preserved Ethelred's kingdom, it encouraged the Danes to return for further payments. Such was the level of payment to the Danes, that archaeological excavations in Denmark and Norway have yielded more Anglo-Saxon coins of the tenth and eleventh century than have been found in the whole of England.

In 1002, Ethelred married Emma, daughter of Duke Richard of Normandy. This marriage later helped to provide Duke William of Normandy with his claim to the English throne.

Before AD 1000 manorial chapels, later to become parish churches, were starting to be built, often initially of timber then later of stone. These provided the lord of the manor with an additional income for charges levied on baptisms, marriages and particularly burials. These would have been performed at the mother church of St. Helen's in Worcester City before such edifices were built near to the manorial home. Although parts of these Saxon structures are still evident in the fabric of some small parish churches, no trace of these original buildings remain visible in the structures of either Holt or Little Witley churches today.

On the founding of Eynsham Abbey in 1005 Aethelmaer, by permission of King Ethelred, granted it two 'manentes' of common woodland at Beonetlege (Bentley). Aethelmaer had earlier purchased the land from the King who had acquired it when it was forfeit by Leoftoet. The lady, Leoftoet, was an example of a long-standing English tradition, that is the rights of women to own land.

Danish raids continued. Then, in 1013, Sweyn Forkbeard, king of Denmark, decided to make himself king of England. He overcame Ethelred in a hard-fought campaign, and Ethelred fled to Normandy.

The English accepted Sweyn as king late in 1013, but he died after only a few weeks. Ethelred returned from Normandy and resumed his reign early in 1014. At his death in 1016, his son Edmund Ironside succeeded him. But Sweyn's son, Knutr or Cnut (more commonly known today as Canute) (994?-1035), brother to the king of Denmark, sought to reclaim his father's kingdom in England. In 1016, Canute and Edmund signed a treaty dividing England between them. Edmund died suddenly shortly afterwards, leaving Canute as sole king.

Canute divided England into four military districts ruled by earls. Mercia became one of the Earldoms, granted to loyal followers, supporters or relatives of the King. The 'King's men' were also installed into positions of responsibility in the church hierarchy. Archbishop Wulfstan of Worcester however survived from the time of Ethelred and Edmund. He became one of the Canute's principal advisers, possibly even drafting the new kings 'First Law Code', an open letter to the people of England in which Canute professed that he would rule by the English Law as devised by Alfred the Great.

In 1017 the six hide Beonetleah (Bentley) with Witley manor was granted by Wulfstan to his brother, Aelfwige, along with meadowland to the east of the Severn, now known as Pitchcroft. This grant was more detailed than preceding ones. It listed such appurtenances to the estate as an orchard at Maerdic (Boundary Dike) and associated Haga (Game Enclosure), a messuage (house with land) and two salt ovens at Sealtwic (Droitwich). The orchard and game enclosure were on-doubt nearby and were situated between the lands of Aelfric the smith and Eadwin, Aedda's son.

In 1019 Canute succeeded his brother as king of Denmark. He acquired Norway in 1028, thus uniting a great Scandinavian empire. In England, Canute ruled wisely and enjoyed the strong support of the church. His code of laws restored and enforced Anglo-Saxon customs. He was the first Norse ruler to be accepted as a civilised Christian king. His kingdom collapsed after his death in 1035.

Viking Hogback Tomb Stone (Luss, Scotland)

Brihtegus a personnel friend of Cnut, held the See of Worcester from 1033 to 1038. His land grants were not always popular with monks under him. Lyfing was archbishop of Worcester in 1042 when he granted the six 'mansae', or hides, manor of Beonetleag (Bentley with Witley), to Aethelric, brother of his predecessor Brihtegus. The appurtenances of the estate were as listed on the previous charter of 1017. Two of Cnut’s Danish followers, Wulfmer and Ulfketel, controlled Little Witley and other manors such as Redmarley, Shelsley, Abberley, and Halac.

Manors often fell into arrears with their contributions of taxes to the crown and/or church. This may account for the often rapid changing hands of the estate at intervals much shorter than 'three lives'. By paying off estate debts to the Sheriff (the Monarchs representative in the county), acknowledging the Prior and paying what was usually a trifling annual acknowledgement a would-be Manorial Lord could acquire the lease of the manor. This was how Earnig/Ernwy, a Dane and priest of Edric the Wild, acquired the manor of Witleaege (Witley) sometime before the conquest. Ralph de Bernay forcibly removed the estate from Earnig but it did not return to the church on his imprisonment.

Ethelred II's weakness had caused people to lose respect for the monarchy. Canute brought the country back under firm, though sometimes ruthless, rule. He improved England's defence and helped its traders to win new markets. He also supported the Church.

Canute married Ethelred's widow, Emma. Their son Hardecanute (also spelled Harthacnut) was in Denmark when his father died in 1035. Because of the political situation in Denmark, Hardecanute could not return to England immediately. In 1036, the Witan (king's supreme council) elected as king an illegitimate son of Canute, Harold, known as Harefoot. Harold's mother, Elfgifu of Northampton, and Godwin, Earl of Wessex, both helped him to win the kingship.

It seems that Harold I inherited his father's ruthlessness but not his ability. After Harold died in 1040, Hardecanute finally succeeded as king. Hardecanute had a long-standing disagreement with the people of Worcester, and increased taxes accordingly. The populace revolted and killed two of the King's visiting tax collectors in 1041. The King retaliated by sending an army to the city with the express aim of ruining it, killing the inhabitants and laying waste the countryside. The cathedral was partially destroyed but the citizens left the city and fled north, taking refuge on Bevere (Beaver) Island in the Severn, where they beat off repeated attacks by the Danish army. Local manors and parishes, that is Grimley and possibly Holt, may well have suffered the depredations of the marauding army at that time. A truce was eventually signed and the army retreated, but not before burning the Cathedral to the ground as a final act of vengeance.

Hardecanute died the following year. Thus in 1042 the throne passed to the last great Saxon king, Edward (1002?-1066), the only surviving son of Ethelred II and Emma.

The pious Edward founded Westminster Abbey, which was completed in 1065. In 1161, Pope Alexander III canonised Edward (declared him a saint) and gave him the title of . He was a stranger in England having lived in Normandy for 25 years. As king, Edward lacked influence among England's Anglo-Saxon nobles because he had lived for so long in France. During his reign, there were many struggles for power. The king could never be ignored, but from time to time the great Earl Godwin and his sons dominated affairs. Godwin, Earl of Wessex, was Edward's Anglo-Saxon/English father-in-law. He tried to dominate Edward's reign. Edward resisted Godwin's efforts by relying on Norman advisers and administrators. Leofric (died 1057), earl of Mercia, husband of Lady Godiva of Coventry; in 1051 acted as mediator between Edward the Confessor and Earl Godwin. Godwin died in 1053.

Edward was childless, and a dispute arose over who should succeed him. Edward the Confessor's closest heirs by blood were his nephew, Edward the Atheling, and then the Atheling's young son, Edgar the Atheling. Edward the Atheling died in 1057. Edward's cousin William, Duke of Normandy, claimed that in 1051 Edward had promised him the throne. Harold paid at least two visits to the Continent.

But when Edward died in 1066, the English nobles sitting in the Witan chose Godwin's son, Harold, earl of East Anglia and of Wessex, as king. Most of Harold's time from 1055 until 1066 was spent in conflict with other claimants to the throne. He first defeated the house of Leofric of Mercia and its allies. On his coronation in 1066 his right to become king was immediately challenged by William, Duke of Normandy.

The Normans were a people descended from Vikings who had settled around the River Seine. They had adopted Christianity and the French language and by the 11th century the Duchy of Normandy was rich, populous, and powerful.

In September 1066, Tostig, Harold's brother, together with King Harald Hardrada of Norway, invaded northern England. Harold defeated them at the Battle of Stamford Bridge. But he had to turn south at once to oppose a landing in East Sussex by William. William had gathered together a "host of horsemen, slingers, and archers" before he set sail for England. Harold met him with weary foot soldiers armed with battle-axes. The two armies clashed in the famous battle of Hastings on Oct. 14, 1066.

The Normans defeated the Saxons and Harold was killed. The Norman Conquest of England had started.